History: 2017: CBSE: [All-India]: Set – III

Between c. 600 BCE and 600 CE, gender differences in societies assumed importance, especially in context of access to resources. Unlike men, women were debarred from inheritance; control of land, cattle and money; or hoarding family property, without husband’s consent.

During medieval period, sieges were conducted by starving defenders into submission, by capture or destruction of agricultural lands. While most rulers built large granaries within fortifications to counter this, Vijayanagara rulers adopted a more complicated approach of fortifying agricultural tracts.

One consequence of Partition has been the emergence of stereotypes in both the nations, wherein people’s loyalty is associated with religion, not nation. Simultaneously, partition generated memories and hatred that still shape history of people in both countries.

Communal identities were consolidated by many developments in early 20^th century, especially during 1920s and early 1930s. Muslims were angered by “music-before-mosque”, by cow protection movement, and by AryaSamaj’s efforts to bring back recent converts to Islam, to Hinduism (shuddhi). Simultaneously, Hindus were angered by rapid spread of tabligh(propaganda) and tanzim(organisation) by Muslims, after 1923.

As middle-class publicists and communal activists built greater solidarity and unity within their own communities, against other communities, riots spread all over India. Every communal conflict deepened inter-religious differences, creating disturbing memories of violence.

For Mahatma Gandhi, freedom of India meant not just political freedom, but also social and religious freedom. He wanted to root out all the social problems that had plagued and divided Indian society for centuries. He also viewed unity of all religions as necessary to achieve India’s freedom. Hence, his focus was not merely centered on politics, but also on social welfare and equality of all Indians, regardless of their caste or religious identities.

Some members of the Depressed Castes, who were present in the Constituent Assembly, stressed that protection and safeguards could not solely resolve the problem of “Untouchables”.

According to them, their misery was due to social norms and moral values of caste society. The latter had used their services and labour, but socially stayed aloof from them, refusing to mix or dine with them or allow them into temples.

Depressed Castes formed between 20-25% per cent of total population. Yet, their suffering was caused by systematic marginalisation. They had neither access to education, nor share in administration.

Although the Mahabharata was written primarily in Sanskrit, its growth did not stop there. Over many centuries, many versionsof the epic were written in several languages, through a continuous process of dialogue betweenpeoples, communities, and writers.

Several stories,related to specificregions or circulated amongst some people were added to the epic. Simultaneously however, its central theme was often retold indifferently. Many episodes were also depicted in sculpture andpainting. They also laid themes for several kinds of performing arts – plays, dance and other narratives.Most of Mahabharata’sretellings or re-enactments draw onthe main narrative in creative ways.

Bernier, the French traveller to Mughal India,during the 17^th century, described cities in Mughal India as“camp towns”. By calling them so, he meant that these towns owedtheir existence, as well as their survival,on the imperial camp. According to Bernier, these “camp towns”cameinto existence when the imperial court moved inand, after it moved out,they declined rapidly. He suggested that these “camp towns” had neither viable social,nor economic foundations, but were rather dependent onimperial patronage.

Relations between Mughals and its neighbours depended on control of Hindukush frontier. All conquerors who wanted to enter India had to cross it. Mughals aimed to remove this threat by controlling strategic outposts of Kabul and Qandhar.

The latter, a fortress-town, was coveted by both Safavids and Mughals. Initially with Humayun, it was reconquered in 1595 by Akbar. While Safavids maintained relations with Mughals, it continued to claim Qandhar as its own. In 1613, Jahangir sent a diplomatic envoy to the Safavids to unsuccessfully plead the Mughal case for retaining Qandhar. Finally in 1622, Safavids captured it.

Many residential buildings in Lower Town of Mohenjodaro were centred on a courtyard, surrounded by rooms on all sides. All activities were probably centred on the courtyard.

Concern for privacy is apparent by the lack of windows in walls at ground level. Moreover, the main entrance does not provide a direct view of the courtyard’s interior.

Every house had its own brick-paved bathroom, with drains connected, through walls, to street drains. Some houses have remains of staircases, leading to a second storey or roof. Many houses had wells, often in rooms accessible from outside, probably used by passers-by.