History: 2016: CBSE: [Delhi]: Set – II

R.E.M. Wheeler was the Director-General of the ASI.

He introduced the stratigraphy rather than dig mechanically along uniform horizontal lines and brought military precision to the practice of archaeology.

Both Kabir and Guru Nanak Dev advocated a form of nirguna bhakti.

They also rejected sacrifices, ritual baths, image worship, austerities and the scriptures of both Hindus and Muslims.

The temperate and cool climate of the Indian hills was seen as an advantage, particularly since the British associated hot weather with epidemics like Cholera and malaria.

Early archaeologists thought that objects which seemed unusual may have had a religious significance. These included terracotta figurines of Harappan women as mother goddesses, rare stone statuary of men as the “priest-king” and a figure shown seated cross-legged in a “yogic” posture, sometimes surrounded by animals as “proto-Shiva” or Pashupati. These reconstructions of Harappan religion are made on the assumption that later traditions provide parallels with earlier ones, that is, from the present to the past i.e. today we know Shiva as Pashupati but during Rig Vedic time he was known as Rudra. So this reconstruction is wrong.

Al-Biruni was aware of the inherent problems in understanding Indian social and Brahamanical practices like the barrier of language. According to him, Sanskrit was so different from Arabic and Persian that ideas and concepts could not be easily translated from one language into another.

The second barrier he identified was the difference in religious beliefs and practices.

The third barrier was the self-absorption and consequent insularity of the local population.

Al-Biruni exclusively used the Vedas, the Puranas, the Bhagavad Gita, the works of Patanjali, the Manusmriti, etc., to provide an understanding of Indian society.

Domingo Paes called the mahanavami dibba as the part of the “House of Victory”. It has two platforms one above the other, beautifully sculpted. On the upper platform, the king has a room made of cloth where the idol has a shrine.

Mahanavami dibba is a massive platform; base of the platform is covered with relief carvings. Rituals associated with the structure probably coincided with Mahanavami.

He told that, the Vijayanagara kings used to display their prestige, power and suzerainty on this occasion while nayakas used to bring rich gifts for the king as well as the stipulated tribute.

First the British government wrongly assumed that Wajid Ali Shah was an unpopular ruler. On the contrary, he was widely loved.

The removal of the Nawab led to the dissolution of the court and its culture. Thus a whole range of people including musicians, dancers, poets, artisans, cooks, retainers, and administrative officials etc. lost their livelihood.

The prince, taluqdar and sepoys were expelled. They all identified firangi raj with the end of their world, created dissatisfaction.

Increase of revenue demand in from 30 to 70 % also created dissatisfaction among peasants, had no reasons to be happy with the annexation.

Steps taken by EIC were –

1. The zamindars’ troops were disbanded, customs duties abolished, and their cutcheries brought under the supervision of a Collector appointed by the Company.
2. As zamindars lost their power to organise local justice and the local police. Over time the collectorate emerged as an alternative centre of authority, severely restricting what the zamindar could do, destroyed all the influence and the authority of the raja and his officers.
3. Rich ryots and village headmen, jotedars and mandals also created problems for zamindar with the British laws so that zamindar could assert his power over them.

After the end of the Harappan civilization, this was also the period during which the Rigveda was composed.

 Agricultural settlements emerged in many parts of the subcontinent, including north India, the Deccan Plateau, and parts of Karnataka.

A new mode of disposal of the dead, including the making of elaborate stone structures known as megaliths, emerged in central and south India from the first millennium BCE.

The most visible turning point was the emergence of early states, empires and kingdoms also new towns appeared during this period.

A citizen should treat any member of a minority community by recognising his/her cultural entities while assuring their cultural rights.

He should not hurt the religious sentiments of any minority community.

It is the duty of every citizen to not hurt the self respect of any person irrespective of his/her religion.

A citizen should train himself in the art of self-discipline where he/she should take care for minority community and would not let them felt as an alienated community.