History: 2013: CBSE: [Delhi]: Set – I

Alexander Cunningham was the first Director-General of the Archaeological Survey of India and is often regarded as the “Father of Indian Archaeology.” Cunningham used the accounts of Chinese Buddhist pilgrims (fourth to seventh century CE) to locate early settlements of Harappan civilization.

Krishnadeva Raya belonged to the Tuluva dynasty. During his rule, the Raichur doab was acquired in 1512 CE, the rulers of Orissa were suppressed in 1514 CE and the Sultan of Bijapur was defeated in 1520 CE. This period is noted for its peace and prosperity.

The ‘Objectives Resolution’ of Nehru is considered a momentous resolution because it outlines the defining ideals of the constitution of independent India and provides the framework within which the work of constitution-making is to proceed.

The settlement in Mohenjodaro was divided into different sections - citadel and the lower town.

Mohenjodaro had a planned drainage system. The roads were laid out along a “grid pattern.”

The lower town consisted of residential buildings with a courtyard in the middle. There were rooms on all sides of the courtyard.

On the citadel, there was the warehouse and the Great Bath. The warehouse was a massive structure with a lower brick portion. The Great Bath was a rectangular tank situated in the courtyard with a corridor along all the four sides. It had two staircases from north and south directions. Great Bath was used as a special ritual bath.

The Mahabharata gives us a detailed insight into the ancient family ties where the people from the same family shared food and other resources, and lived, worked and performed rituals collectively. The people who were defined as relatives i.e., the kinfolk and the familial ties were often regarded as "natural” and based on blood with cousins as being blood relations, while others were not.

Mahabharata proved helpful for the historians in investigating and analyzing the attitude towards family and kinship as it provides an insight into people’s thinking. It is probable that some of the ideas which existed would have shaped the course of actions which may have led to some changes in attitude.

The core of Jainism is that the entire world is animated. According to the Jain teachings, the cycle of birth and rebirth is shaped through karma. It preaches that asceticism and penance are required to free oneself from the cycle of Karma by renouncing the world. This renunciation can be achieved by the monastic existence which would ultimately lead to salvation.
There are five vows which monks and nuns take:
(i) To abstain from killing
(ii) To abstain from stealing
(iii) To abstain from lying
(iv) To observe celibacy
(v) To abstain from possessing property
The theme of non-injury to living beings or anything for that matter remains central to the Jain philosophy.

Between the sixth and the fourth century BCE, Magadha (in Bihar) became very strong and powerful. Modern historians attribute different reasons for its emergence. They argue that being situated in the region chiefly drained by Ganga and its tributaries, it was very suitable for agriculture. Moreover, the iron mines of present-day Jharkhand provided them with good quality tools and weapons. The forests of that region had a large elephant population, which was used in the army. The drainage of that area by rivers like Ganga and its tributaries provided cheap communication. Apart from being naturally gifted by natural resources, Magadha also had able kings like Bimbisara, Ajatasatru accompanied by their ministers who helped in implementing the policies of the king.

Bernier’s description of imperial land ownership influenced western theorists from the eighteenth century onwards. The French philosopher, Montesquieu used his account to develop the idea of oriental despotism, according to which the rulers in Asia tend to enjoy absolute authority over their subjects, who were kept in subjugation and poverty.
The above idea was used by Karl Marx to develop the concept of the Asiatic mode of production whereby Marx argued that before colonialism, the surplus was appropriated by the state. This led to the rise of autonomous and egalitarian village communities. The imperial court respected their autonomy as long as the flow of surplus was unimpeded.

The spread of Islam in the Indian subcontinent was due to the culmination of various factors which existed during that particular period. The structure of the society played an important role in its spread as there was inequality prevalent in the society, people wanted some identity which could uplift their social status and Islam was the answer because of its principle of equality. The Principle of Unity (Tawhid) was equally important as it emphasised on collective unity. Other factors such as the “Universality of Truth” and the belief that universal and objective Principles should govern human affairs appealed to people. The simplicity by which Islam could be followed and the absence of any elaborate ritual made Islam easier to follow among people who had little resource.

The daily routine and the special festivities associated with the Mughal Empire focused on the sovereign and mirrored his status as the heart of the society and a sense of power he held. The conduct in the emperor’s court was followed with great respect and precision. The minutest infringement of etiquette was noticed and dealt with severity. Deeper prostration represented higher status in the court. The protocols which were governing diplomatic envoys were equally explicit. The concept of “Jharoka darshan” was introduced with the aim of broadening the acceptance of the imperial authority.

Similarly, festivals were celebrated in the lavish manner which showcased the authority and power of the Mughal emperor.